by William J. Tsamis
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INDEX
absolutism
Academy
ad hominem argument
aesthetics
Age of Reason
alchemy
alienation
angst
animism
a priori / a posteriori
argumentum ad vericundium
atheism
axiology
axiom
behaviorism
being
Brahman
Cartesian
casuistry
categorical imperative
chain of being
cogito ergo sum
Coherence Theory of Truth
Common Sense Realism
contingent being
Correspondence Theory of Truth
cosmogony
cosmological argument
cosmology
cynic
Darwinism
Dasein
death of God
death of God theology
deductive argument
deism
Demiurge
determinism
deontological ethics
design argument
dialectic
dualism
emanation
empiricism
Enlightenment
Epicureanism
epistemology
existentialism
fatalism
fideism
Forms (Ideas, Ideal Types)
Four Elements
Free Will
Gnosticism
God of the gaps (Deus ex machina)
golden mean
hedonism
heliocentrism
Hellenism
humanism
Ideas - see Forms
idealism
induction
Ionian School
law of non-contradiction
logical positivism
logos
Lyceum
materialism
metaphysics
metempsychosis
Milesian (or Ionian School)
monism
naturalism
natural theology
Neoplatonism
nihilism
noetic structure
nominalism
noumena, noumenal realm
Nous
Ockham's Razor (also Occam's Razor)
onotological argument
Onltology
panentheism
pantheism
paradigm, paradigm shift
Pascal's Wager
Peripatetic
phenomena, phenomenal realm
philosopher kings
positivism - see logical postivism
pragmatism
Presocratics
presuppostion
rationalism
reason
reductio ad absurdum
relativism
revelation
Romanticism
situation ethics - see relativism, absolutism, utilitarianism
Storic philosophy, Stoicism
syllogism
sycretism
tabula rasa
tautology
teleological argument, design argument
theism
theodicy
transmigration - simply, reincarnation. see Metempsychosis.
universals and particulars
utilitarianism
verification principle
will to power
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absolutism - In ethics, especially, this term is used in apposition to relativism. In Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, the great philosopher writes, "Fire burns both in Greece and in Persia, but men's ideas of right and wrong vary from place to place." This is an expression of moral relativism which asserts that there are many valid views with regard to a particular ethical issues. In contrast, absolutism would imply that there are universal ethical standards which are inflexible and absolute. see relativism.
Academy - The philosophical school founded by Plato in 385 BC. Some scholars contend that this was, in fact, the first university.
ad hominem argument- A Latin phrase which means "directed at the man." Essentially, this is a fallacy of logic whereby a man (e.g., an apologist), at loss of a meaningful, rational argument, instead attacks the character of his opponent.
aesthetics - The philosophical study of beauty and art. One debate which is ongoing within the field of aesthetics can be summarized by the question, "Is beauty objective or subjective?"
Age of Reason- see Enlightenment.
alchemy - A Medieval and ancient practice which combined occult mysticism and chemistry. Essentially, alchemists tried to discover a formula where they could blend certain metals into gold, or where they could blend certain potions into an elixir of immortality.
alienation - This was a term used by Karl Marx (1818-83) to denote the division and separation between the upper class (bourgeosie) and the lower class (proletariat). In recent years, the term has been used to suggest estrangement, powerlessness, and the depersonalization of the individual.
angst - A German word which means "anxiety" or "anguish." Technically, this is a term used in Existentialism which expresses the dread reality that the future is an unknown chasm; therefore, the choices that a person (the existent) makes are the determining factor in the outcome of one's future - thus, the cause for "angst."
animism - This is a religious/spiritual view which asserts that everything in the universe, whether animate or inanimate, is embued with some psychological/spiritual consciousness. Although animism is usually attributed to tribal cultures, some philosophers have held to similar views as well - e.g., Plotinus, Leibniz, Schopenhauer,
et al.
a priori and a posteriori- These are Latin phrases which respectively mean "What comes before" and "What comes after." A priori indicates knowledge which is prior or independent of experience, while a posteriori indicates knowledge which is derived from or after experience.
argumentum ad verecundium - This is a Latin phrase which means "appealing to respect." In essence, this is an appeal to an authority for support, even though that particular authority might not have adequate knowledge in the particular field under discussion.
atheism - The belief that there is no god, or that there is insufficient evidence to compel one to believe in a god.
axiology - Axiology is the broad study of ethics and aesthetics.
axiom - A statement or assertion for which no proof or demonstration is required. Simply put, an axiom is a self-evident truth.
behaviorism - Behaviorism is a psychological theory first put forth by John Watson (1925), and then expounded upon by B.F. Skinner. Attempting to answer the question of human behavior, proponents of this theory essentially hold that all human behavior is learned from one's surrounding context and environment.
being - A rather complex term in philosophy, as it has been used over the centuries,
being is usually equated to existence, a field with which ontology is concerned. Many philosophers have perceived being as the most fundamental property of ultimate reality.
This is not to be understood in the sense of "a" being, but simply being - i.e., that quality of "is"ness, or perhaps, that which "is."
Brahman - Hinduism has gone through many changes in its 3,200 year history. Although in the first stage (1,500 to 600 BC) Hinduism was primarily a polytheistic cultic religion, with priests and sacrifices to many gods, the post-600 BC period brought on what is called the Vedantic era, which was based on the monistic teachings of the Upanishads which came into being during the same period. The Upanishads assert that the ultimate being or world-soul (it would be improper to call him a god since he is everything in the universe and beyond) is the very essence of the universe, and that he pervades all of ultimate reality. "All is Brahman; Brahman is all" is the saying that indicates to us a radical pantheistic monism.
Cartesian - Anything which relates to the thought of Rene Decartes (1596-1650).
casuistry - In ethics, casuistry is a term which is concerned with the unfair practice of allowing moral laxity among certain individuals while holding others to more stringent biblical or eccclesiastical norms. This has often been the case in some churches where certain people have influence or reputation; thus, their sins are often overlooked while those of the commoner are not discounted so easily.
categorical imperative- An important term introduced into the realm of ethics and moral philosophy by the German thinker Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). As he himself put it, "Act only according to a maxim by which you can at the same time will that it shall become a general law." In other words, "act only in such a way that you would want all men to act." Kant's categorical imperative is not far from Jesus' Golden Rule or some of the teachings of Confucius which demand that one's actions are guarded and selfless.
chain of being- This is a phrase alluding to the order, unity, and completeness of all things in the universe, beginning from the smallest particle all the way up to God. The idea, which finds its origins in Plato's Timaeus, is essentially a way of categorizing all of reality. As many thinkers have expounded upon it throughout history, it essentially has come to denote a hierarchical order in the universe.
cogito ergo sum - Latin for the famous phrase by Rene Descartes,
"I think, therefore I am." After the Copernican Revolution and the condemnation of Galileo by the Inquisition in 1634, Descartes sought to develop an epistemology that was logically scientific and mathematically precise. Descartes' new quest for a scientific epistemology essentially ushered in a new age of modern philosophy where knowledge would be arrived at through systematic reasoning, rather than through accepting certain presuppositions of the Church, the fount of truth. Though Descartes was a Christian theist, he nevertheless wanted to construct an epistemological method that would allow man to know things in a certifiable, concrete way. So, he essentially began his quest by doubting everything, even his own existence. For instance, Descartes began by doubting the accuracy of his sense-
experience -- e.g., sometimes the senses can be deceptive. Or perhaps, he may have
simply been in a dream state; or, maybe his entire experience had been distorted
by a demon, an evil-genius. Essentially, Descartes arrived at a dead end, thinking to
himself that maybe his entire existence was an illusion. Ironically, however, Descartes realized that the very fact that he could doubt was evidence of his existence. For, if he did not exist, then he could not doubt. Thus, the idea that he could engage in this process of thought, was evidence of his existence - "I think, therefore I am." This was the the cornerstone of building a scientfic epistemology that was based solely on subjective reasoning, rather than on the assertions of others. And though such an idea may not sound too impressive at first, Descartes's "Cogito" had massive implications on philosophy and human thought in general. This particular aspect of Descartes's philosophy (i.e., his epistemology) can be found in his Meditations.
Coherence Theory of Truth - Among the many theories of truth, a statement (or proposition, assertion, judgment) is regarded as true only if it coheres with the other statements of a particular system. In other words, the statement must be consistent or interrelated with all the other parts of the whole system. Simply, it must fit in with the whole. For rationalist thinkers (e.g. Hegel especially), coherent assertions are a part of the ultimate reality - the ultimate reality being the whole, or the totality. And for logical positivists the same is true -- however, the coherent assertions are part of an empircal scientific nature of the world, indeed a scientifically comprehensive view of the universe. So, essentially, the coherence theory of truth relies on internal consistencies within any particular thought system or set of assertions.
Common Sense Realism - This was a Scottish school of thought which thrived in the eighteenth century due to the writings of Thomas Reid (1710-96). Reid was a contemporary of David Hume (1711-76) - Hume being one of the leading skeptics of the era. Although Reid fully appreciated the force of Hume's skepticism, he nevertheless disagreed with Hume's assumptions and conclusions. Essentially, Reid believed that the common sense instilled in the minds of ordinary people was sufficient for deducing certain truths about the world. Thus, in Reid's view, the hyper-skepticism of Hume was nothing more than the philosopher's abstraction, and the common man could arrive at certain truths through ordinary common sense.
contigent being - Human beings are contingent because they are dependent on another for their existence. They are not self-caused, neither are they self-sustaining - rather, they are contingent.
Correspondence Theory of Truth- Another among the many theories of truth, this idea simply asserts that truth corresponds to reality. Essentially, truth is the "sum of all facts" - thus, "the sum of all facts" corresponds to that which is true about ultimate reality.
cosmogony - A scientific or mythological account about the origin of the universe. All cultures throughout the world have some kind of origin myth (or cosmogony), thus answering the human existential question regarding the origin of the universe and man. Essentially, cosmogony is a Greek word which literally means "the birth of the cosmos."
cosmological argument- The cosmological argument essentially is an argument which attempts to prove the existence of God. Although the argument has been set forth in diverse ways ever since the time of Plato (427-347 BC), it is usually associated with Thomas Aquinas (1224-74) and his "Five Ways to Prove the Existence of God." In Thomist thought, the argument is essentially an argument from causality, and can be summarized according to the following syllogism:
1) Finite things exist
2) Finite things are caused by another
3) There cannot be an infinite regress of finite causes
4) THEREFORE, there must have been an Uncaused Cause (God)
cosmology - Different from cosmogony, which is concerned with origins, cosmology is essentially a branch of philosophy that is concerned with the universe as a totality, integrating both physics and metaphysics. In modern science, however, cosmology is primarily concerned with the universe according to contemporary notions of physics. In the Greek, cosmology literally means "the study of the cosmos."
cynic - Literally, in the Greek, "dog-like," the Cynics "barked" at society, snapping at its heels, attempting to awaken society from its conventional slumber. Although tradition traces the origin of Cynicism to one Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates (469-399 BC), it was the legendary Diogenes (ca. 400-325 BC) who made Cynicism so famous, its continuity being established for over a millennium. The Cynics essentially lived according to a primitive association with nature - "living according to nature." To desire anything beyond one's ordinary needs would be considered unnatural according to Cynic thought. Self-sufficiency, self-discipline, simplicity, freedom, along with a shameless disregard for conventional authority was at the heart of Cynic philosophy. A Cynic would usually wear long hair, a cloak, and carry a begging bag.
Darwinism - The theory attributed to Charles Darwin (1809-82) which posits that all biological organisms evolve through natural selection, a scientific term which essentially means that certain species will survive over others because they are better suited to a particular environment. For instance, as different species are struggling to survive in a particular ecosystem, Nature herself, in a sense, selects those species which are the fittest to survive. Although the mechanism for evolutive change has not dogmatically been detected, the original theories of Charles Darwin have been changed into what is called neo-Darwinism. Note the following to see the differences between the theory of Charles Darwin, and the new hypothesis set forth by his successors:
1) Charles Darwin's mechanism for biological evolution:
- Darwinism: Natural selection + Survival of the fittest = evolutive change
2) Neo-Darwinism's mechanism for biological evolution:
- Neo-Darwinism: Natural selection + "mutations" = evolutive changeIt is important here to point out that the problem of discovering the mechanism for evolutive change has been ongoing in the various fields related to biological science. The ideas that Charles Darwin first put forth in his Origin of Species in 1859 have changed markedly since their inception; nevertheless, evolutionary scientists have worked without pause in trying to discover the mechanism for evolutive change.
Dasein - Literally, a German word meaning "being there." The term Dasein was a technical term used by the twentieth century philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889-1976). In Heidegger, Dasein (always capitalized) is at the very ground of existence which allows all other things to come into existence. Dasein (or "Being") is the condition of basic existence. Thus, according to Heidegger, we exist, or we are there. We are thrown into this life and we are wholly shaped by circumstances and by our environment. If Descartes would say, "I think, therefore I am," Heidegger would respond, "I am, therefore I think." At the other pole of "Being" in Heidegger's thought was "The Nothing," i.e. the concep of non-existence - literally, "no thing." In Heidegger's words, man is "thrown" into the world and he is "abandoned unto death."
death of God- A phrase made famous by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) in his works "The Joyful Science" and "Thus Spake Zarathustra." In the former work, the death of God is considered to be the greatest deed ever wrought by mankind. Note the words of Nietzsche, in this respect:
"Where has God gone? I shall tell you. We have killed him - you and I. We are all his murderers . . . God is dead. That which was holiest and mightiest of all that the worldhas yet possessed has bled to death under our knives. There has never been a greater deed" (The Joyful Science).
Nietzsche's philosophy takes its departure from this idea of the death of God. For Nietzsche, Christinity is nothing more than a dungeon that glorifies weakness and inhibits the stronger virtues which his philosophy extols. Essentially, humanity is a transitional phase between animality to that of the superman (Ubermensch) of the future. Thus, man must propel himself into the future by abolishing the idea of God (or divine rule), and instead create a new value structure upon which he can build a new world.
death of God theology- A movement which flourished in the United States between the 1960s and 1970s, essentially promoting the idea that the "God hypothesis" is antiquated and defunct. It was asserted that intelligent individuals did not invoke God anymore, and that scientific principles have become the explanatory mechanism of the universe. Moreover, contemporary philosophy has shown that theism, in a conventional sense, is incoherent and incredible. Thus, according to these thinkers, the abolition of God was necessary if mankind was to experience societal progress. Christianity should follow the model of Christ, and essentially sacrifice itself to modern conventions of thought. "The Gospel of Christian Atheism" by Thomas J. Altizer (1970), a leading work in the field, essentially articulated such an implosion of Christianity, and a subsequent universalism.
deductive argument- A logical argument which is structured by two or more premises, leading to a conclusion. Deductive arguments are usually set forth in the pattern of a syllogism.
Premise 1: All men are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Notice how the syllogism works according to a mathematical formula:
Premise 1: All men (A) are mortal (B). A is B
Premise 2: Socrates (C) is a man (A) C is A
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates (C) is mortal (B). C is B
deism - A belief or doctrine which asserts that God exists as transcendent creator, yet He plays no immanent role in the creation, especially in any supernatural or providential sense. Many Enlightenment thinkers, as well as American founding fathers (e.g., Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, et al.) were deists.
Demiurge - A Greek term, meaning "craftsman." The Demiurge is a concept which originates in the thought of Plato (427-347 BC). In his work, Timaeus, the Demiurge is essentially the maker of the physical universe. The notion was acknowledged by Gnosticism as well, as they emphasized the idea of cosmological dualism, or the idea that there is a spiritual realm which is good and pure, and there is a material realm which is evil. In Gnosticism, the material universe was not created by the Supreme God (i.e., the God of the New Testament), but rather, by the Demiurge, an inferior deity (in some systems, an evil being) who is identified with the Old Testament YHWH. It must be noted, however, that there is a difference in the Platonic and Gnostic ideas of the Demiurge. Whereas in the Platonic system the Demiurge creates the world as a reflection of the heavenly Forms (or Ideal Types, Ideas) - thus implying some inherent good in the material creation - the Gnostic system infers that evil is the result of the material creation; therefore, the one who created the material universe, the Demiurge, must necessarily be an evil being.
determinism - In contrast to freewill, The Doctrine of Determinism asserts that all human actions are predetermined. The debate between determinism and freewill has been ongoing for centuries, and the fields of psychology, philosophy, and theology have all been involved in the debate.
deontological ethics - In contrast to utilitarianism, deontological ethics focuses on the concept of moral obligation and duty, regardless of the outcome.
design argument- see teleological argument.
dialectic - According to Hegel (1770-1831), dialectic is simply the logical pattern of thought, the overall pattern being thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. Thus, thought proceeds by contradiction (thesis/antithesis), and is then reconciled by a fusion of the contradictory ideas (synthesis). In Hegelian dialectic, the doctrine of the Holy Trinity perfectly exemplifies this process of logic:
Thesis >>> God is one.
Antithesis >>> God is three.
Synthesis >>> God is triune.
dualism - The idea that there is a distinction between spirit and matter.
emanation- In connection with Neoplatonism (ca. AD 250-500), all of reality is an emanation (i.e., a continual flowing out) from the One (i.e., God). There is a process of denigration in this continual flowing out. First, nous (mind), then soul, then matter, matter being the furthest emanation from the One. Since man is a material emanation, his purpose is to reject the material world and instead embrace the spiritual. In this way, he "turns back" to the One and contemplates his divine origin.
empiricism - Empiricism is essentially a theory of knowledge which asserts that all knowledge is derived from sense experience. It rejects the notion that the mind is furnished with a range of concepts or ideas prior to experience. In the thought of John Locke (1632-1704), the human mind is a tabula rasa (i.e., a blank tablet) at birth; thus, knowledge is acquired as the mind experiences external reality through the senses. Three principal British philosophers who are associated with empiricism are John Locke (1632-1704), George Berkeley (1685-1753), and David Hume (1711-76).
Enlightenment (or Age of Reason) - The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement which took place in the eighteenth century, representing a culmination of the humanistic spirit of the Renaissance (ca. 1350-1600) and the results of the scientific revolution which had begun with the work of Copernicus, Galileo, Bacon, and Newton. Essentially, for many thinkers, the Enlightenment represented a radical break from the medieval period (i.e. the Dark Ages) and ushered in a new age of reason. From the perspective of religion (especially Christianity), the Enlightenment accelerated the secularization of Western culture, liberating society from the firm authority of the Church and biblical concepts. Thus, reason became ascendant over the authority of revelation, and mankind was now moving away from Christian theism toward a new era of humanism.
Epicureanism - In Acts 17:18 we find the Apostle Paul encountering a group of Epicurean (and Stoic) philosophers in Athens. In essence, Epicureanism was the philosophy of Epicurus (341-270 BC), and it posited the notion that the goal of man is to live a life of pleasure and happiness. It rejected outright hedonism (self-gratification in any form) for a more tempered ethical hedonism. In sum, ethical hedonism simply consisted of living a life of peace and tranquility, valuing friendships, avoiding excess, avoiding pain, and avoiding any fear of death. Accordng to Epicureanism, ethical hedonism this was the key to happiness. It is probable that Paul was referring to Epicureanism in 1 Cor 15:32, where here wrote, "Eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow we die."
epistemology - The branch of philosophy which is concerned with the theory of knowledge, or more specifically, the question, "How can we know?"
existentialism - A philosophical movement or approach which originated in the nineteenth century with such thinkers as Soren Kierkegaard (1813-55) and Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). Twentieth century existentialist thinkers include Martin Heidegger, Karl Jaspers, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Because existentialism is so subjective in its approach, with each thinker differing markedly in his philosophy, it is very difficult to arrive at an objective definition of existentialism. Nevertheless, according to most existentialists, ultimate reality cannot be defined objectively; rather, the individual (i.e. the existent) comes to a personal inference of ultimate reality according to his own unique experience in time and space. For the individual, there is a self-awareness that he is an existent in a complex, ever-changing world; thus, a condition of anxiety (angst) arises as the individual struggles with his beliefs, hopes, fears, and desires - ultimately, he senses an innate need to find a purpose for his existence. There is also agreement among existentialist thinkers that free will is one of the most important characteristics that an individual possesses. Thus, each human being is presented with an innumerable amount of choices - and some choose to conform to patterns imposed by some external authority rather than to carve out their own destiny according to their own yearnings. Accordingly, then, the latter individual is the one who becomes an authentic human being, while the individual who compromises his deepest yearnings is the one who lives an inauthentic life. A very famous phrase which defines this aspect of existentialism was expressed by the French thinker Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), who said, "existence precedes essence." By this, what Sartre meant was that the human essence is not fixed according to some abstract concept which defines what man is; but rather, the human essence is formed by the existent through his own free will choices. Finally, it should be noted that existentialism, though subjective, is neither theistic or atheistic. Indeed, there have been certain theistic existentialists (e.g. Kierkegaard), and there have been certain atheistic existentialists as well (e.g. Nietzsche, Sartre).
fatalism- The idea that what will happen is determined to happen, and nothing that we do will make any difference. Thus, everything is determined by fate.
fideism - This is a religious view which has existed throughout history, essentially articulating the premise that certain doctrines cannot be arrived at through rational thought processes. In sum, all metaphysical truth must be approached through "faith." An extreme fideistic position would be represented by Kierkegaard ("leap of faith"), while a more moderate position tempered by reason (moderate fieism) would be represented by Pascal.
Forms (Ideas, Ideal types) - A doctrine central to the philosophy of Plato (427-347 BC). In the Greek, the term is rendered ideai or eidoV (= ideas). This is perhaps one of the most complex theories in philosophy, partly because, although Plato continued to maintain this doctrine throughout his philosophical career, the doctrine of Ideas or Ideal types (Forms, Ideas, and Ideal types are all interchangeable terms) was always in the process of philosophical development in the mind of Plato, as evidenced by his writings. Many historians of philosophy have regretted the fact that we have no adequate record of the lectures of Plato when he taught in his Academy (i.e. the philosophical school which he founded in Athens). With the additional insight provided by his lectures, we would have certainly grasped his doctrine more definitively.
Now in ordinary language, the English word Idea is essentially a subjective concept
which we assign to an individual's subjective mind. However, in Plato's Doctrine of Ideas (or Ideal types), we are referring to objective universal concepts which exist outside of the individual's mind. For instance, in Plato's Timaeus he theorizes that the Demiurge (i.e. the creator of the material or sensible world) made the individual things in the world according to an Ideal type or pattern which exists in some transcendental plane. Socrates, for instance, would be an imperfect copy of the demiurgic concept of the Ideal Man which exists in the transcendental plane. A dog, for instance, is simply an imperfect copy of the demiurgic concept of the Ideal dog which exists in the transcendental plane. The same goes for birds, trees, lions, stones, etc., as well as such aesthetic and ethical ideas as beauty, goodness, truth, love, etc. It is important to note that Plato's theory of knowledge regarding Ideas is connected to his entire philosophical construct - for instance, his doctrine of immortality, i.e. the preexistence of souls and metempsychosis (or reincarnation, transmigration). According to Plato, then, in his Crito and Phaedo, where he records the final dialogue of Socrates in an Athenian prison, the Socratic teaching can be summarized as such:
Prior to one's existence on earth, he lives in the transcendental world where the
Ideas (Ideal types) also reside (if I can use that word). When a human being is born
into his earthly existence, he not only becomes an imperfect type of the Ideal man, but
he subconsciously brings with him a knowledge of the Ideas which exist within the
transcendental world. Thus, when he experiences material reality (e.g., birds, trees,
lions, dogs, stones, etc.), he doesn't "learn" what they are as if they exist "outside" his mind; rather, he "remembers" what they are from his preexistence in the transcendental realm as they are re-called from his subconscious. Thus, according to Plato, knowledge of the sensible, material, ethical/aesthetic world already exists within the person's mind. A person doesn't learn anything "new;" he simply recalls what he already knows from his prexistent life in the transcendental realm.
Thus, if we were to summarize Plato's Doctrine of Ideas, we would note two key
points: (1) The sensible, material, ethical/aesthetic world in which we live is an imperfect copy of a perfect realm of Ideal types which exists in some transcendental realm; and (2) Our knowledge of the sensible, material, ethical/aesthetic world already exists within our subconscious or conscious (depending on the degree of our philosophic knowledge). Thus, our knowledge of the world is innate; it's not something we discover empirically or in any other way. (From the latter statement, you can sense that Plato's Theory of Ideas would come under great scrutiny and criticism, first from Aristotle (Plato's student), and then from a long line of philosophers over a period of 2,000 years).
Finally, allow me to point out that Plato's best depiction of his Theory of Ideas can be
found in his Republic: Book VII. The depiction is called "The Allegory of the Cave."
Although it is highly advised to read the primary text of "The Allegory of the Cave," I will here quote the philosopher Bertrand Russell (1870-1972) as he summarizes
Plato's "Allegory of the Cave."
"Those who are destitute of philosophy may be compared to prisoners
in a cave, who are only able to look in one direction because they are
bound, and who have a fire behind them and a wall in front. Between
them and the wall there is nothing; all that they see are shadows of
themselves, and of objects behindthem, cast on the wall by the light
of the fire. Inevitably they regard these shadows as real, and have no
notion of the objects to which they are due." (Russell, A Historyof Philo-
sophy, NY:Simon and Schuster, 1945).
Thus, in Plato's "Allegory of the Cave," the men who are chained in the cave are anala-
gous to us - i.e. we who are chained to our present existence here on earth. When we look around and perceive the sensible, material objects around us, we are simply looking at "shadows" on the wall - i.e. imperfect representations of the Ideal types which are "behind us" (i.e. beyond our view).
Four elements- According to many of the Greek philosophers, beginning with Empedocles (494-435 BC), the four essential elements that comprised the universe
were earth, air, fire, and water.
Free will - in contrast with determinism, the doctrine of free will asserts that man is able to make choices according to his own will. Although the debate between free will and determinism has been ongoing for centuries, the fields of psychology, philosophy, and theology have all introduced their respective theories into this important debate.
Gnosticism - Gnosticism was a pseudo-Christian religious movement which flourished in the first and second centuries AD. Since the discovery of the Nag Hammadi texts (ancient Gnostic texts) in Egypt in 1947 (paralleling the dscovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls), there has been a renewed interest in Gnosticism. Although a concise definition of Gnosticism is elusive, it is probably safe to say the Gnosticism was one of the most syncretistic (pluralistic) and ambitious speculative theological movements in the ancient world, blending everything from Oriental mysticism, Greek philosophy, Christian ideology, mystical Judaism, and everything else in between. Derived from the Greek word "gnosis," meaning "knowledge," the Gnostic religions(s) flourished at the same time that the orthodox/canonical Church was attempting to expand throughout the Roman empire. Thus, Gnosticism posed a serious threat to early Christianity. Despite the plurality of influences which defined Gnosticsm, it is possible to identify the three key pillars of Gnosticism upon whichthe individual Gnostic sects constructed their individual sectarian systems:
1) Cosmological dualism - i.e. the spirit/matter distinction, or the idea that there is an antagonism between God (the spiritual realm) and matter (or the sensible, material plane of phenomenal reality). According to this principle (influenced by Plato to a degree, although Plato's conception was different), a sharp dualism exists between two worlds - the "spiritual" world of divine light and the "material" sensible world of darkness. In sum, the Gnostics equated "spirit" with "good" (or light), and "matter" with evil" (or darkness). Thus, as the abode of the principle of evil, the "material," sensible world could not possibly be the handiwork of the Supreme God. From this conclusion, then, the Gnostic thinkers derived the whole conept of a Demiurge, similar to the Platonic notion.
2) The Demiurgic Notion - i.e. the YHWH/Demiurge distinction, is the idea that the material universe was "not" created by the Supreme God (i.e. not YHWH, but the God of the New Testament - The Father), but rather by the "Demiurge" (Greek for "craftsman"); an infererior deity (in some systems, an evil being because he created the evil, material, sensible world - he is identified with the Old Testament God YHWH, and most Gnostics despised Him). Although the philosophical idea of a Demiurge is rooted in the thought of Plato (cf. Timaeus), the Gnostic notion is fundamentally different. Whereas in the Platonic system the Demiurge creates the world as a reflection of the heavenly Forms ((Ideas, Ideal Types) - thus, implying some inherent good in the material creation - the Gnostic system beholds the rabid evil of our decaying world and therefore concludes that such an "evil universe cannot be assigned to a good god." Thus, YHWH is perceived as a finite, imperfect god, and is futhermore accused of being an angry and terrible deity.
3) The Docetic Christology - i.e. the view that Christ was not a "material" entity, but rather, a sort of "phantom" who merely bore the similitude of a man for purposes of accomodation. Christologically, Docetism was the logical extension of "cosmological dualism and the "the demiurgic notion." Because the gnostics considered matter inherently evil, the idea of a genuine "material" incarnation was simply unthinkable. Interesingly, part of the docetic Christology asserts that in the fifteenth year of Tiberius (29 AD), Jesus Christ manifested himself suddenly in the synagogue at Capernaum.
God of the gaps - If a fact of nature, let's say, cannot be explained by science, theists will assert that it is of divine origin. In the past, a "god of the gaps" accusation could have been leveled against the Norwegians who worshiped Thor as the "God of thunder." Just because they could not explain what "thunder" was, they attributed that mystery to a divine origin. Now, of course, we know that "thunder" is simply a meteorological phenomenon. In our day, the mystery of life's origin has resulted in futile attempts by the scientific establishment to solve the problem of how life came into existence; hence, theists will view this as "a gap" and attempt to explain such a mystery by claiming that the answer must be of a divine nature. Scientists, however, will insist that theists are using this "god of the gaps" method of logic - i.e. appealing to a god, rather than attempting to solve the problem. One atheistic response to the god of the gaps is usually, "Just because we can't solve the problem now, doesn't mean that we won't be able to solve it in a hundred years!" God of the gaps is sometimes known as deus ex machina ("god out of the machine"), which is a term from classical drama and theater. In a particular play, for instance, when the plot reached a pivotal juncture where there was no natural resolution, a mechanistic apparatus would lower a god down onto the stage and
the god would resolve the crisis.
golden mean - The doctrine of the golden mean originates in the thought of Aristotle and his ethics. He believed that "moderation" was the proper ethical path, between the two extremes of, let's say, asceticism and riotous living.
hedonism - Indeed, self-gratification. Essentially, this is the principle of "Eat, drink, and be merry for tomorrow we die" (1 Cor 15:32) - i.e. the idea that if one wants to be happy in life, then he must pursue a lifestyle of pleasure and gratification.
heliocentrism - The theory that the planets revolve around the sun. Interestingly, the theory had been forwarded as early as 250 BC by Aristarchus of Samos, the ancient Greek astronomer. However, the early Greeks (Plato, Aristotle, et al.) had influenced the geocentric theory (i.e. that the astral bodies revolve around the earth) which would be advanced scientifically by Claudius Ptolemaeus (90-168 AD) - hence, the Ptolemaic cosmology. This geocentric theory lasted until the 16th century with the new speculations of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). The overthrow of the geocentric Ptolemaic cosmology occurred when the theories of Copernicus and Galileo became indisputably substantiated around in the 16th-17th centuries, and thus the scientific revolution began its long march. This pivotal event of heliocentrism can literally be regarded as one of the most important events in intellectual history, its effects being far-reaching and consequential.
Hellenism - Hellenism, or Hellenization, is the process by which the world adopted Greek thought, culture, and language due primarily to the conquests of Alexander the Great (356-323 BC). The Hellenistic period extends in history from the death of Alexander (323 BC) to about 30 BC when the Roman Empire annexed the last major
Hellenic kingdom (Egypt) in about 30 BC. Nevertheless, Hellenism survived in
Roman thought and culture, and consequently, it has survived throughout the
centuries in the minds of people everywhere, whether in philosophical or political
traditions.
humanism - "Man is the measure of all things," proclaimed Protagoras, the Greek philosopher who lived in the fifth century BC. The term humanism has had numerous connotations over the centuries, some positive, some negative. As a movement, in general, the term is usually connected to the Renaissance era (1350-1600), when
certain intellectuals began to absorb the literary genius of Greece and Rome, whose
writings had been preserved for the most part in Constantinople. Prior to the conquest of Constantinople by the Muslims in 1453, many Byzantine (Greek) scholars fled to Italy and brought with them the ancient texts of Greek and Roman civilization, including thousands of manuscripts of the New Testament from certain monasteries. In recent years, however, the term humanism has essentially become connected to the movement of secularism (hence, secular humanism) - i.e. those who reject religious belief in general.
Ideas - see Forms.
idealism - Various philosophical theories of mind fall under this category. Essentially, idealism is the view which posits that the material realm does not exist wholly independent of the mind. Idealism does not dismiss the notion that the material realm exists; it just asserts that the material realm must be perceived by the mind - i.e. that ultimately, the material realm (contepts, ideas, things, etc.) exists in the mind. Idealism is characteristically opposed to materialism, which asserts that the material realm exists whether the mind perceives them or not. With the rise of modern science, materialism has become the ascendant theory of mind.
induction - Also called, the inductive method, it is essentially a process of reasoning in which a general principle is inferred through observation. Contrary to a deductive argument in which the conclusion follows from the premises, in an inductive argument the conclusion generally follows from the initial observation. For example:
Every A we have observed is a B.
Therefore, every A is a B.
Every crow (A) we have observed in the past 20 years is black (B).
Therefore, it is probable that all crows (A) are black (B).
Thus, the inductive method generally produces a hypothesis rather than an irrefutable
logical conscusion as in deductive logic. Inductivism is therefore an inherent part of
the scientific method which was developed by the philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-
1626). With the rise of natural science, it became increasingly clear that the deductive
method could only demonstrate truths which were already implied in the premises.
Thus, many thinkers began to turn to the process of induction.
Ionian School - see Milesian School
law of non-contradiction - The law of non-contradiction is one of the most important principles in the realm of logic. Essentially, "two contradictory propositions cannot both be true at the same time in the same sense." For instance, Christians believe that salvation is through Jesus Christ alone, and Muslims believe that salvation is through Mohammed and Allah alone. Yet pluralists contend that both religions are true; however, the law of non-contradiction states that two contradictory statements cannot both be true at the same time. Therefore, one of the propositions must be false.
logical positivism - Positivism was a school of thought which originated in the 1920s and 1930s which essentially held that all propositions, whether metaphysical or physical, are meaningless unless they can be empirically verified (the verification principle). However, the idea was a self-refuting proposition since it could not be empirically verified itself - i.e. logical positivism, like other propositions, could not pass the test of empirical verification.
logos - This Greek term, meaning "word" (but much more) was first introduced into the stream of human thought by the philosopher Heraclitus of Ephesus (d. 475 BC). Though, Heraclitus stressed that "change" was the one constant in the universe, He also began to develop the idea that God, in a monistic sense, was the unifying principle and underlying Reason (logos) behind the universe; thus, he recognized change and diversity, on the one hand, yet a coherent, unchangeable unity, on the other. "Reason" (logoV), then, was the governing principle of the universe according to Heraclitus. In later centuries, the Stoic philosophers (300 BC-150 AD) would borrow this conception from Heraclitus and integrate it into their cosmology as well. It is perhaps most interesting, though, that the Apostle John, writing his gospel from Ephesus (the home of the famous Heraclitus) about AD 90, uses the term "logos" in his prologue to refer to the person of Jesus Christ. In other words, we can infer from John's usage of this technical philosophical term that he was entirely aware that he was making a connection between the abstract Heraclitean conception of universal "Reason" and the true "logos" who is Jesus Christ. In sum, that which the Greek philosophers could only speculate about was actually realized in the person of Jesus Christ. The fact that the Johannine gospel was written twentyyears after the destruction of the Temple in AD 70 while the Jews were in exile in Hellenic lands further strengthens this argument, since Greek philosophical ideas (such as "the logos") were well known by learned people everywhere. At the same time, however, it must be noted that the Apsotle John drew from the idea of "dabar YHWH" (Heb. = "word of YHWH"), and brought together both the Hellenistic and Judaic ideas of "the word" into a higher unity - something which is not exclusively Greek nor Jewish, but rather, something which is an entirely new creation - something which is entirely Christian.
Lyceum - The Athenian gardens where Aristotle founded his philosophical school in 335 BC. Even as Plato called his school The Academy, Aristotle called his school The Lyceum. It wasthe custom of Aristotle to teach while he walked with his students through the gardens, hence the term peripatetic (which means "to walk with")..
materialism - A philosophical term denoting that whatever exists is either composed of matter or is dependent upon matter for its composition. An atheist, for example, would consider himself a materialist.
metaphysics - Literally, "beyond physics" - in sum, metaphysics is the religiophilosophico pursuit of ultimate reality, i.e. that which underlies the unseen or noumenal realm. see noumena.
metempsychosis - Simply, this word is the Greek philosophical term for reincarnation or the transmigration of souls. If one is speaking of reincarnation in the context of Eastern religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, etc.), then it would be more appropriate and erudite to use the phrase "the transmigration of souls." If one is speaking of reincarnation within the context of Greek philosophy, then it would be more appropriate to use the term "metempsychosis."
Milesian (or Ionian) school - The Milesian school of philosophy refers to that group of pre-Socratic philosophers who lived on the coast of what is now western Turkey (the Ionian coast). The term Milesian comes from the name of the city Miletus, about thirty miles south of the city of Ephesus. (Miletus is where the Apostle Paul met the Ephesian elders on his journey back to Jerusalem after his third missionary journey (Acts 20:17)). Thus, it was from this region, where eventually the seven cities of Revelation would be born, that the great pre-Socratic philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, Anaximanes, and Heraclitus would launch one of the greatest intellectual movements in history.
monism - The philosophical or religious view that ultimate reality is One. "All is One, and One is All." Monism resembles pantheism in the sense that, in pantheistic systems, "the All" (i.e. ultimate reality) is identified with God.
naturalism - Contrasted with "supernatuarlism," naturalists insist that the universe is a "closed system," i.e. there is no God who intervenes in the universe and in human affairs. Naturalists presuppose "evolution," and believe that science is the only way to come to an understanding of truth.
natural theology - Natural theology is an inference drawn from nature that there must be a God. In many cases, it is an attempt to prove the existence of God from this inference. We find this in the proofs of Thomas Aquinas (1224-74) and William Paley (1743-1805) (e.g. "Paley's Watchmaker" argument). A perfect example of natural theology can be found in Rom 1. see teleological argument.
Neoplatonism - A philosophical school of thought founded by Plotinus (AD 205-270) in Alexandria, Egypt. Drawing significantly from Platonism and other schools of Greek philosophy, Neoplatonism emphasized that all "being" emanates (or "flows out") from The One, or The Good (i.e. God). Similar to Gnosticism in many repects, Neoplatonism would pose a challenge to Christianity during the early centuries of the faith. Perhaps the most influential Neoplatonist would be Porphyry (AD 232-305), who would also become a serious critic of Christianity. Interestingly, the influential church father Origen (185-254) embraced some platonic ideas similar to Neoplatonism, although these ideas would be condemned by the fifth ecumenical council (Constantinople III) in 553. see emanation.
nihilism - As a doctrine of negation, nihilism maintains that religious and moral truths are entirely irrational. It then follows, in the words of Ivan, from Dostoyevski's The Brothers Karamazov, "If God does not exist, then everything is permitted." Nihilism is a pessimistic view of reality which results from "God is dead" thinking. In the words of Nietzsche, since there is no God, "there is no one to command, no one to obey, no one to transgress." Often, nihilists deny that life is meaningful or purposeful in any way, resulting in a sort of anarchistic worldview. As the French atheistic nihilist once said, "It matters not whether a man is a drunkard or a ruler of empires; in the end, both men will suffer the same fate" (Sartre). In the works of Franz Kafka and Albert Camus, nihilism is reduced to this sort of abusurdism as well, as they explore the themes of meaningless, despair, hopelessness, and the trivial nature of life itself.
noetic structure - From the Greek term noew (noeo = "to understand"). Essentially, a noetic structure can be defined as "the sum total of everything that a person believes" (Nash, Faith and Reason). Indeed, within a person's noetic structure there might be a number of erroneous beliefs; however, this matters not - the errors are also part of the person's noetic structure.
nominalism - Nominalism is the view that universals do not exist in some ideal realm - they are just names (onoma). Thus, the nominalist's position is antithetical to Plato's theory of ideas. So, the existence of a thing is to be found in the particular, and not in the universal. Thus, instead of saying, "Man" (a universal), the nominalist would say "a man" (a particular). William of Ockham (1285-1389) was a leading nominalist. see Idealism.
noumena, noumenal realm - From the Greek, "thing in itself," in contrast with the idea of phenomena (or phenomenal realm), as exposited in the thought of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Noumena, or the noumenal realm have to do with those aspects of reality which cannot be experienced through the senses (e.g. the spiritual world). Kant made a sharp distinction between the noumenal realm and the phenomenal realm, essentially stating that although the spiritual world most likely exists, we cannot experience it (or know it) as we do the phenomenal realm. We can see and touch the phenomenal realm (i.e. the world of matter), but we can't see and touch the noumenal realm. Although Kant did not intend to set forth an agnostic position, in a sense he was saying: "I know for certain that this table or this chair exists; however, there is "no way of knowing" that angels, spirits, and God exist." Later thinkers would conclude from Kant's distinction between the phenomenal and noumenal realms that since there is "no way of knowing" for sure about the existence of the noumenal realm, then there is "no reason to talk" about things like angels, spirits, and God. Unknowingly, Kant would have a devastating effect on theism.
Nous - Greek for mind (nouV). For the pre-Socratics the term meant knowledge and reason. For Plato the term meant "the rational part of the soul." For Aristotle it meant intellect.
Ockham's Razor (Occam's Razor) - A philosophical principle traditionally attributed to William of Ockham (1285-1349) applied in areas of philosophy and science. Literally, the principle states that "Entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity." Simply put, "All things being equal, the simplest explanation is the best one."
Ontological argument - A very complex rationalistic argument for the existence of God formulated by the medieval theologian and Archbishop of Canterbury, Anselm (1033-1109). For Anselm, God is simply "that than which nothing greater can be conceived." Thus, the notion of God existing as such is greater than the notion of His non-existence. Therefore, He must necessarily exist. Simply stated in its traditional sense, the argument is set forth as follows (Geisler/Feinberg, Intro to Philosophy):
Premise 1: God is by definition the most perfect Being conceivable.
Premise 2: The most perfect Being conceivable cannot lack anything.
Premise 3: But if God did not exist, He would lack existence.
Conclusion: Therefore, God must exist.
Although there have been other formulations of the argument, this form of the argument
was rejected by Thomas Aquinas, Hume, and Kant. Although on the face of it, the
argument seems to be quite circular, it is interesting to see that leading philosophers continue to ponder this idea that God must necessarily exist.
Ontology - Ontology is that branch of philosophy that is concerned with the study of Being (existence) itself. see Being.
panentheism - A worldview which essentially asserts that "all is in God"; thus, just as a soul is related to the body, so too, God is related to the world -- the soul fills the body as God fills the world. Perhaps the Stoic saying puts it best: "All are but parts of one stupendous whole; whose body Nature is, and God the soul." (Chrysippus).
pantheism - A worldview which asserts that God is the universe and the universe is God. Thus, the idea of God's transcendence is eliminated while the idea of His immanence is magnified.
paradigm, paradigm shift - From the Greek word paradigma (paradigma), the term paradigm was introduced into science and philosophy by Thomas Kuhn in his landmark book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" (1962). Essentially, a paradigm is simply the predominant worldview in the realm of human thought. For instance, today we would say that we live within an evolutionary paradigm since evolution is the predominant worldview regarding origins. As a paradigm, evolution replaced creation as the explanation for the origin of the universe. A paradigm shift occurs when cultures transform their way of thinking from one thought system to another. For instance, prior to Copernicus and Galileo (ca. 1600), most people believed that astral bodies revolved around the earth (geocentrism); but after the Copernican Revolution (ca. 1600), it became obvious that the earth revolved around the sun (heliocentrism) -- thus, a major paradigm shift occurred from geocentrism to heliocentrism. We find another example in the oceanic voyages of Columbus and Magellan. Prior to the voyages of these two famous navigators, most people believed that the earth was flat; but after the voyages of Columbus and Magellan, it became obvious that the earth was spherical. Thus, the pre-1492 paradigm (that the earth was flat) shifted to a post-1492 paradigm (which posited a spherical earth). Simply put, then, a paradigm shift is a pivotal change in humanity's way of thinking regarding a particular worldview.
Pascal's Wager - Blaise Pascal (1623-62) was a famous French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher who truly sought to understand the meaning of his existence in this vast universe. Like any man of intellect, Pascal struggled with the concept of God's existence, saying, "I see too much to deny God, yet too little to be sure." Essentially, what he meant was that he saw the evidence of God's existence in the glory of creation, yet at the same time he perceived certain difficulties as well, such as the problem of evil. After years of contemplation, however, Pascal decided to become a Christian and follow the path of the Savior. His philosophical work, Pensees (Lit. "thoughts"), is one of the classic spiritual writings of all time. Anyway, for those suspended in agnosticism, Pascal devised the following formula, called Pascal's Wager, because ultimately it demands that one gamble (wager) his existence on one of the following propositions:
1. If God does not exist, and I believe that He exists >>> I lose nothing. Christian
2. If God does not exist, and I don't believe that He exists >>> I lose nothing. Atheist
3. If God exists, and I believe that He exists >>> I gain everything. Christian
4. If God exists, and I don't believe that He exists >>> I lose everything. Atheist
Essentially, Pascal is asking the reader, "Within the context of eternity, which is the safest of the following propositions?" The only winning position is #3.
Peripatetic - In the Greek, the word "peripatetic" means "walking with." This was the method of teaching that Aristotle used - i.e., "walking with" his students in the gardens as he taught them and they questioned him. Hence, the term "peripatetic" is used to describe the followers of Aristotle.
phenomena, phenomenal realm - In the thought of Kant, the phenomenal realm is the world of matter - i.e. the world which we can experience through our senses. It is thus distinguished with the noumenal realm. see noumena, noumenal realm.
philosopher kings - In Plato's "Republic," he speculated that the ideal form of government would be ruled by a fusion of wisdom (philosophers) and power (military strength) - thus, the idea of philosopher kings. He wrote, "Unless philosophers rule as kings . . . or those who are now called kings and princes become genuine and adequate philosophers . . . there will be no respite from evil for humanity."
positivism - see logical positivism.
pragmatism - A distinctly American philosophical movement founded by Charles S. Peirce (1839-1914) and expounded upon by William James (1842-1910) and John Dewey (1859-1952). Essentially, pragmatism asserts that truth is to be determined by its practical implications. In other words, if a certain proposition, etc. has practical meaning or produces practical results, then the proposition is determined to be true. The weakness of pragmatism was quickly uncovered and attacked by the British atheist Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) who asserted that pragmatism was tantamount to "blind obscurantism."
Presocratics - Simply, those Greek philosophers who preceded Socrates. Although none of their works have survived through scribal transmission, some of their writings can be reconstructed, and their philosophical positions can be inferred from later philosophers (e.g. Plato, the Stoics) who quoted them and wrote extensively about
their musings. The greatest achievement of the pre-Socratic philosophers is that they
challenged the existing Greek polytheistic system, and their ideas eventually led to the
collapse of the Olympian pantheon. see Milesian school.
presupposition - Simply, "an assumption."
rationalism - In essence, rationalism was a philosophical theory of knowledge that thrived especially as a movement in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, its greatest proponents being Renes Descartes (1596-1650), Benedict Spinoza (1632-77), and Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716). As a movement, rationalism was characterized by its confidence in reason, and intuition in particular, to know reality independently from sense experience. Thus, rationalism was the polar opposite of empiricism which asserted that knowledge couldonly be derived through sense experience. see Empiricism. In the nineteenth and twentieth century, the term rationalism has somewhat become synonymous with reason (i.e. scientific reason), over and against all systems of faith.
reason - Reason is the use of logical faculties to arrive at truth.
reductio ad absurdum - Latin for "reduction to absurdity." In a philosophical debate, for instance, one can "reduce his opponent's argument to the absurd" by allowing the conclusions of his opponent to reach the extent of their implications. One example can be found in the debate over the resurrection of Jesus. Many conspiracy-minded people have adopted the idea that Jesus never did really died on the cross. In fact, he actually went into a catatonic state and was revived by the coolness of the tomb (because 2,000 years ago, it was difficult to ascertain whether or not one was dead in some instances). Although this idea had been floating around since the early nineteenth century, it was recently revived and popularized by the best-selling book "The Passover Plot." written by Hugh Schonfield (1972). Now with regard to the idea of reductio ad absurdum, it would do the apologist well to allow the skeptic to follow through with his/her argument. For instance, let's say that Jesus was in fact revived by the "coolness of the tomb." Well, let's examine the implications: (1) That would mean that Jesus had to somehow escape from the tomb, (2) He would have to convince the distraught disciples that He was the Messiah despite hiscrucifixion wounds, (3) This would mean that He was a liar, (4) This would also imply that while the disciples were suffering great martyrdoms, He was hiding out in the Judean wilderness somewhere, etc. In sum, the apologist has reduced the skeptic's argument to the absurd ("reductio ad absurdum") simply by allowing the initial argument of the skeptic to persist. Very few people would claim that Jesus, one of the greatest ethical teachers in history, was a liar and a coward of this caliber.
relativism - In ethics, relativism is the opposite of absolutism. Whereas absolutism insists that there are universal ethical standards that are inflexible and absolute, relativism asserts that ethical mores vary from era to era, culture to culture, situation to situation. For instance, an absolutist would condemn China's forced-abortion policy, while a relativist would say that in a culture of one billion human beings, such a policy is acceptable and even beneficial for the whole of Chinese society. Relativists find their moral justification in the ethical philosophy of utilitarianism which asserts that "That which promotes the greatest happiness is right." see absolutism, utilitarianism.
revelation - The idea that God has revealed Himself through nature and the human conscious (this is called natural revelation), and more specifically through the Holy Scriptures and the Incarnation (this is called special revelation).
Romanticism - A sweeping movement in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century which affected political, philosophical, and artistic thought throughout Western Europe. Romanticism served to counter the rationalism and empiricism which dominated the Enlightenment, and it attempted to place the focus on the potentialities of the individual. Romanticism especially emphasized the innate beauty of man, the power of the imagination, hence its expression through various artistic forms.
situation ethics - see relativism, absolutism, utilitarianism.
Stoic philosophy, Stoicism - A philosophical movement founded in Athens around 300 BC by Zeno of Citium (ca. 334-262 BC). The Stoics took their name from the Painted Colonnade (stoa = porch), from where Zeno delivered his lectures. The Apostle Paul stumbled across some Stoic philosophers (and Epicureans) while he traveled through Athens (cf. Acts 17:18) sometime around AD 50-53. Stoicism found its definitive formulation under Chrysippus (280-207 BC), and was largely derived from Heraclitus (ca. 535-474 BC) and his concept of the Logos - i.e. that "Reason" (Logos) was the governing and ordering principle behind the universe. In a sense, the Stoics were panentheists, according to the words of Chyrsippus, "All are but parts of one stupendous whole; whose body Nature is, and God the soul." Thus, since Reason (Logos) was the underlying principle behind the universe, it was man's goal to align himself with Reason (Logos), and thus live accordingly, which would lead to a life of strict virtue. Finally, the Stoics believed in Fate as the explanation of all things. Accordingly, when viewed from a cosmic perspective, all things happen for the best and in accord with Reason (Logos). Thus, it is the Stoic's purpose to recognize that the circumstances in life are inevitable (because they are determined by Fate); so, one must be optimistic since all things have been deemed for the best in accord with Reason (Logos). Also, it should be said that the Stoics had a strict moral system (although differing with Christian ethics at times); nevertheless, the Stoics kept lists of virtures and vices, much like the virtue/vice lists in the Pauline writings.
syllogism - see deductive argument.
syncretism - The blending together of different philosophical or religious views. The New Age Movement, for instance, is an example of a syncretistic worldview where many different religions are integrated in various imaginative ways.
tabula rasa - Latin for "a blank tablet." This phrase was used by John Locke (1632-1704) as he set forth his empirical theory of knowledge to indicate the state of the human mind at birth. Essentially, he contended that human beings are not born with any prior knowledge or disposition; thus, their minds could only be influenced by sense experience. See Empiricism.
tautology - In logic, a tautology is a proposition that is already true by definition, not because of any logical deduction. Usually, it is a non-sensical statement. For instance, "All triangles have three sides" is an inherently true proposition, but it doesn't tell us anything new.
teleological argument, design argument - Many thinkers since the time of ancient Greece have set forth some type of argument from design, attempting to show that the presence of order and purpose in the world naturally implies the existence of a Supreme Being. One of the most popular forms of the argument was set forth by the Anglican clergyman William Paley (1743-1805). Essentially, Paley formulated his argument
according to the following syllogism. This famous argument is called "Paley's Watch-
maker."
1) A watch shows that is was put together for an intelligent purpose -- to keep time.
2) The world shows an even greater evidence of design than a watch.
3) Therefore, if a watch calls for a watchmaker, then the world demands
an even greater intelligent designer -- i.e. God.
Although logically convincing, the teleological argument was attacked by David Hume
(1711-76) in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, and more specifically, Paley
was attacked by later atheistic/evolutionary thinkers. After Darwin's theory of natural
selection and its subsequent modifications, it was believed that evolution became the mechanism that brought about order and apparent design in the natural world. Thus,
it seemed that the teleological argument was dead. In recent years, however, the
problems facing evolution, along with new discoveries regarding the extreme complexity
of the universe (on the galactic as well as the microbiological plane) have revived the
teleological argument. Today, perhaps the strongest form of the argument can be found
in the DNA molecule and origin of life discussion. From this, many theists infer a
Designer, while evolutionists charge theists with appealing to the "God of the gaps"
form of logic. see God of the gaps.
theism - Theism is the belief in one god, derived from the Judeo-Christian tradition. In a broad sense, it is generally associated with Chrstianity (Christian theism); in a particular sense, both Judaism and Islam are forms of theism as well. The term, however, is mostly used in a philosophic or apologetic context to indicate Christian monotheism. Sometimes, though, the term is used to distinguish monotheism from atheism, pantheism, polytheism, panentheism, etc.
theodicy - In the Greek, "justification of God," a theodicy is a theological or philosophical attempt to answer the question, "How could an omnibenevolent and omnipotent God have permitted such evil and human suffering to be part of His creation?" -- essentially, the question is concerned with the "Problem of Evil." Certainly, there is no doubt that this has been one of the most difficult questions for theists to answer, and although conventional theistic defenses have been put forth for centuries, many seem to fall short of satisfying the query. For instance, it is commonly held that of all the worlds God could have created, "this world is the best of all possible worlds" (Leibniz - 1646-1716) because any other world imaginable would have contained more evil. Although there are many weaknesses to this assertion - e.g. (1) It is purely speculation without any scriptural authority, and (2) The concept of heaven is actually the best of all possible worlds -- most atheists would respond by saying "You mean the glorious creation which is the best possible work of the Christian God requires the eternal damnation of the majority of mankind?" Here, it is important to remember that at the center of the Christian story it is God Himself who enters into the realm of human existence and identifies with all mankind by suffering the indiginities of men and dying a torturous death on the cross. Perhaps the Incarnation provides us with the best theodicy . . . The theodicy implied in Jurgen Motmann's The Crucified God is a good starting point in demonstrating God's identification with the sufferings of mankind through the Incarnation.
transmigration - Reincarnation. see metempsychosis.
universals and particulars - A universal is a general concept, or the idea of a thing, whereas a particular is literally the thing-in-itself. For instance, there is a man named Dave. Man is the universal; Dave is the particular. The particular (Dave) belongs to the category of universal (Man). Or, let's say that there is a rose. The specific rose flower itself is the particular, while the idea of flowers is the universal. Thus, the particular (rose) belongs to the category of the universal (flowers).
utilitarianism - Perhaps the most widely held ethical doctrine in the Western world today, utilitarianism had its forerunners throughout philosophical history, but it came into concrete form during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806-73) said it best: "Utility or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness, is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure." Although utilitarianism aims for happiness, its obvious weakness is that, sometimes, for the greatest happiness to occur, an innocent person(s) must be sacrificed or exploited, as in abortion or slave labor. see relativism, absolutism.
verification principle - According to the school of logical positivism (ca. 1920), the verification principle serves as the criterion of whether or not a statement is meaningful. Simply, any proposition which is not subject to empirical verification is meaningless. Thus, to make statements about God is to utter nonsense since God is not subject to empirical verification. However, the problem with the verification principle, a problem which was conceded by the logical positivists themselves, is that the verification principle itself cannot be empirically verified. Thus, it is self-refuting. see logical postivism.
will to power - The philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), who had a tremendous impact on the thought of Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), believed that the fundamental instinct of man was the "will to live." Nietzsche, however, believed that even more fundamental than this "will to live" was the "will to power." "This world," wrote Nietzsche, "is the Will to Power -- and nothing else! And you yourselves too are this Will to Power -- and nothing else!" Although on the surface, Nietzsche seems to be asserting a barbaric principle of "victory to the strongest," this is not what he is saying (he has been grossly misinterpreted and exploited here). What Nietzsche is insisting upon is a psychological principle that at the base of human behavior is an instinct or desire (Will) to extend its influence or power, or to further its ability, for its own interests. For one person, conquest and excellence might reflect this will to power; for another person, submission or a glorious death might reflect this will to power (e.g. the power of martyrdom); for another person, self-discipline or self-mastery might reflect this will to power -- so, the inference that Nietzsche's will to power is associated only with conquest or apparent greatness is a false inference. Nietzsche's concept of the will to power must be understood within the context of his existential idea that the human being strives to "Become . . .," rather than simply "to be." At the same time, however, Nietzsche's idea of the will to power would be fully attained when a human being reached the level of Ubermensch (i.e. Superman, Overman, hyperanthropos).
William J. Tsamis
CS Lewis Society
August 1999
